Modern technologies used in the sea, the poles, or aerospace require reliable batteries with outstanding performance at temperatures below zero degrees. However, commercially available lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) show significant performance degradation under low-temperature (LT) conditions. Broadening the application area of LIBs requires an improvement of their LT characteristics. This review examines current challenges for each of the components. Modern technologies used in the sea, the poles, or aerospace require reliable batteries with outstanding performance at temperatures below zero degrees. However, commercially available lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) show significant performance degradation under low-temperature (LT) conditions. Broadening the application area of LIBs requires an improvement of their LT characteristics. This review examines current challenges for each of the components of LIBs (anode, cathode, and electrolyte) in an LT environment. In addition, it discusses the possible modification methods and practical solutions for better LT performance of the battery. Finally, several research flaws are pointed out for LT LIBs that deserve greater attention, and tackling them might result in LIBs being operable at ultra-low temperatures.••••Discussion on failure of LIBs' components at low temperatures is provided.••Practical solutions to overcome the main low-temperature limitations are discussed.••Main research flaws of LIBs for ultra-low temperatures are pointed out for tackling.Energy storage devices play an essential role in developing renewable energy sources and electric vehicles as solutions for fossil fuel combustion-caused environmental issues. Owing to their several advantages, such as light weight, high specific capacity, good charge retention, long-life cycling, and low toxicity, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been the energy storage devices of choice for various applications, including portable electronics like mobile phones, laptops, and cameras. Due to the rapid advancements in modern technologies and the possible application in the sea, aerospace, and military, there is a need for a cost-efficient and reliable energy storage system with excellent performance under harsh conditions, including the extreme temperature environment. LIBs can store energy and operate well in the standard temperature range of 20–60 °C, but performance significantly degrades when the temperature drops below zero [2,3]. The most frost-resistant batteries operate at temperatures as low as −40 °C, but their capacity decreases to about 12%. Furthermore, the aging rate of LIBs accelerates during cycling at low temperatures, thus limiting the long-term use of the battery in cold regions.The primary cause of the low-temperature (LT) degradation has been associated with the change in physical properties of liquid electrolyte and its low freezing point, restricting the movement of Li+ between electrodes and slowin. Low ambient temperature causes a significant cell resistance and polarization, leading to a lower state of charge (SOC, defined in %, where 100% means the maximum number of Li+ that can be fully reversibly intercalated or de-intercalated in the applied voltage region) of electrodes, and causing a significant decrease of the capacity and faster degradation upon continuous cycling [28,29]. The increased resistance at low temperatures is believed to be mainly associated with the changed migration behavior of Li+ at each battery component, including electrolyte, electrodes, and electrode-electrolyte interphases [21,26]. Being a Li+ conducting medium, high-freezing-point electrolyte remains the main rate-limiting factor for different LIB systems at low temperatures. The increased viscosity of the electrolyte at low temperatures decreases the conductivity of Li+ in electrolytes and increases the resistance of passivation SEI and CEI layers [30,31].Later in situ studies on the failure mechanisms of commercial batteries at low temperatures revealed significant negative impacts coming from the side of the electrodes [32,33]. Thus, in the systems with specially-designed low-temperature electrolytes, decreased rate of diffusion of Li+ in the solid-state thick electrodes becomes the rate-limiting factor. Moreover, the degradation of electrode materials at low temperatures occurs in both overall electrode lev. 3.1. Challenges in anodes at low temperatures3.2. Approaches to improve the performance of anodes at low temperaturesAnode modifications. Different approaches on the electrode level have been recently proposed to improve the LT properties of the anode part by addressing the main LT limitations mentioned above. As summarized in Fig. 3, these approaches include controlling the morphology and microstructure, doping and coating nonmetals, metals, and metal ions, modifications on the electrode composition, and finally, coupling carbon-based anode materials with alternative anode materials of higher theoretical capacities and better LT capability than graphite. Table 1 summarizes the reported anode materials with corresponding modifications and LT properties.
